Air operations in the Constitutionalist Revolution

South America in the 1930s was a boiling cauldron, where governments sought to protect their political and economic interests at all costs, both externally and internally. Government intransigence, combined with popular revolts and demands, almost always evolved into something more serious than a simple exchange of accusations, often escalating into armed conflict.

The Chaco War (between Paraguay and Bolivia) and the Leticia Question (between Colombia and Peru) were just some of the best-known examples of these conflicts, which encapsulated quite clearly the developments that permeated military thought in the 30s. The lessons learned in the First World War, about the importance of mechanization of combat forces (through tanks, machine guns and precision artillery) were strongly felt in these conflicts, despite being far in scale from the great calamity of 1914-1918.

One of the most important developments of the Great War, and one that played a major role in these conflicts, was undoubtedly air power. Although the Chaco War is credited with being the first opportunity for aviation to demonstrate its true military potential in South America, it was in fact in Brazil that the first experiments on the usefulness of aerial weapons in warfare were carried out on the continent.

In this text, the reader will be able to follow the unknown history of the Air War in the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, which served as a South American testing ground for learning about the importance of this weapon in the new concepts of war of the 30s and 40s. It would be in Brazil in 1932 that the first downing of an airplane in aerial combat in Latin American territory would occur; it would also be in this same conflict that the first RAID night of the region would be executed; and that also, for the first time in South American territory, cooperation between the Navy and Air Force had been witnessed, in a foreshadowing of the combined operations of the Second World War.

Although unknown today outside Brazil's borders, this conflict attracted worldwide attention at the time, with military attachés from our South American neighbors (such as Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay) mingling with those from much stronger militarily nations (such as the United States and ), who sought to observe in practice the evolution of the art of war in the 30s. Certainly the lessons of this conflict impacted the strategic thinking of all these nations in some way, gradually convincing them that aeronautics had become a decisive weapon in a nation's military arsenal. 

Constitutionalist Revolution: Brazil's Forgotten Civil War

Like many of its South American neighbors, which based their economies on a system of exporting primary and raw products, Brazil suffered greatly from the 1929 crisis. The country's main export product at the time, coffee, depreciated considerably overnight, bankrupting the country's main industry; and, consequently, a serious internal crisis set in within the Brazilian economy. To complicate matters further, 1930 was an election year in the country, which in itself contributed to the political and social unrest that the nation was experiencing at that time.

Marked by scandals, nepotism and other factors, the 1930 elections can be considered the main cause of the Constitutionalist Revolt, which would erupt two years later. The candidate elected to assume the presidency of the country in the 1930 elections, Júlio Prestes, and who had great from coffee producers, had been deposed before even assuming the position of head of state, with his opponent at the polls, the populist Getúlio Vargas, ed by the military, taking office.

This political maneuver was the first preamble to the war that was to come. Two years of dissatisfaction and hostility between the state of São Paulo (which was behind Prestes' presidential campaign) and the Brazilian central government, based in Rio de Janeiro, erupted into open war on July 9, 1932. The resentment of the coup d'état never cooled in the minds of the Paulistas, also known as constitutionalists, for their defense of the constitution and the president elected in 1930.

The war, which lasted 85 days, resulted in approximately 3500 deaths and almost twice as many injuries. These numbers demonstrate the voracity of the fighting in such a short period of time, when compared proportionally to other longer-lasting conflicts in Latin America in the 30s. One thing that the numbers do not show, however, was the technological developments used by each faction, which certainly served the purpose of increasing the number of victims in the conflict.

Artillery and machine guns proved to be the dominant weapons on the battlefield, as they had been in World War I. However, unlike in that conflict, new tactics of infiltration and attacks by small, spaced-out groups were used (taught by French military veterans of the conflict), which certainly avoided even greater bloodshed in the Constitutionalist Revolution. Other weapons, such as tanks and armored trains, also proved their worth, allowing mobile and sustained fire over the battlefield.

However, it was aviation that proved to be the most feared weapon on the Brazilian battlefield. It was in the skies over Brazil that the first lessons learned about the “new” role of aviation, perfected in the final months of the Great War, could truly be put into practice. Aviation, both Constitutionalist and Federalist (allied with President Getúlio Vargas) acted not only as a weapon in its own right, but also as a psychological and deterrent element in key engagements of the conflict.

Also during the Constitutionalist Revolution, aircraft were often used in roles never before seen in much of the world: as a resource for close and tactical for infantry, as an infiltrator in enemy airspace, as an anti-naval attack weapon, and as an element of cooperation with other branches of the armed forces. In this short conflict, aviation taught a valuable lesson: that, even in small numbers, it could be a fearsome weapon if well employed and well utilized.

Composition of the Air Forces, doctrines and tactics

Brazil began the process of structuring an air arm for its armed forces in 1910, and by 1932, this idea had already evolved into a fairly mature form. The idea that the Air Arm should be subordinate to the Army was deeply rooted in Brazilian military doctrine, thus demonstrating the belief that the primary objective of the Air Force was to contribute harmoniously to activities on the ground. However, this line of thinking began to lose strength in the late 1920s, when instructors from the French military mission in Brazil began to demystify this ideology, using lessons learned in the European skies of the Great War.

Therefore, when the 1932 conflict broke out, the Brazilian army's aviation was in a period of transition: the first modern fighters of the fledgling Air Force (four Nieuport-Delage NiD.72 C1) had been received a few years earlier, while the other aircraft, mostly Waco CSO and Potez 25 TOE models, still demonstrated the tendency of aviation towards its cooperative role, since these models were more adapted to , reconnaissance and bombing missions than to air-to-air combat.

The division of these aircraft between the Federalists (legal representatives of the government) and the Constitutionalists (rebels) was obviously not uniform. As in the case of the Spanish Civil War, which would occur a few years later, each side would rely at the beginning of the conflict on the resources that were within its zone of influence, in addition to possible defections of pilots sympathetic to one cause or another, who found themselves behind the rival ideological lines. As the main Brazilian military air base at the time was located in Campo dos Afonsos (Rio de Janeiro), consequently the Federalists retained most of the aircraft, especially a valuable quantity of Potez 25 TOE, which would form the backbone of the Federalist Air Force (known as the Mixed Aviation Group) in the first part of the conflict.

In addition to the planes in Federalist hands, there were those in the possession of the Naval Air Force, belonging to the 1st Observation Division and the Mixed Patrol Aircraft Flotilla, which were grouped under the single command of the Brazilian Navy. The unit totaled (on paper) almost thirty planes of various models, from the small De Havilland DH 60T to the gigantic Savoia-Marchetti SM.55A seaplanes.

On the Constitutionalists' side, the story was quite different. There was only one notable military airfield in São Paulo, Campo de Marte. As one of the first war actions of the conflict, the revolutionaries tried to take over the site, ensuring control of the facilities and the planes present. The only notable aircraft seized at this time were two Potez 25 TOE and two Waco CSO, which formed the nucleus of what would become known as the 1st G.Av.C (Constitutionalist Aviation Group).

Still in this phase of the first confrontation, the rebels incorporated two more planes into their fleet, whose pilots had deserted from the Federal forces: another Potez 25 TOE and a Nieuport-Delage NiD.72 C1. These were ed by a medley of other seized and loaned civilian models, which provided liaison, reconnaissance and cooperation services with the army on less active fronts, under the aegis of the other São Paulo air formation, the Grupo Misto de Aviação Constitucionalista.

Despite the considerable resources at hand, both sides in the conflict knew that they would have to invest in other aircraft to definitively tip the balance in their favor. The Federalists were the first to move in search of an advantage for air supremacy, which was proving difficult to conquer, despite the numerical superiority of this front over the Constitutionalist aviation. A large contract, for 36 Waco C90s, signed a few weeks after the beginning of the conflict, was enough to alarm the Constitutionalists, who soon reacted.

Bying the Federal Government's blockade, the rebels negotiated an agreement with the subsidiary of Curtiss Wright Corporation in Chile, for the purchase of 9 Curtiss Falcon O-1E aircraft, which would become the most advanced aircraft to participate in the Revolution. The Falcons were aircraft that could easily sur the Federal Waco and Potez in diving speed and rate of climb – and, despite having been developed as fighter-bomber aircraft, their main mission would be to achieve supremacy over the skies of the eastern front, where the situation was already desperate for the Constitutionalists.

Even before these new aircraft were introduced into the conflict, each side had already defined its doctrine for the air war that was about to unfold: both forces decided to concentrate most of their resources in the most active and sensitive areas of the conflict: the Coastal Front and the Eastern Front, which form a large arc that runs along the border between the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, from the sea to the border with another Brazilian state, Minas Gerais. To this end, the construction of advanced air bases became essential for both sides, with the aim of having a more constant air presence over the front.

However, the similarities end there. On the Federalist side, the doctrine consisted of daily patrols consisting of at least a pair of aircraft, acting as leader and wingman, often in echelon formation. Many of the bombing missions also had an escort of at least one or two aircraft, especially after the arrival of the Waco C90s, specially designated for these air cover missions. However, aircraft assigned to reconnaissance missions often ventured alone into enemy airspace, having to defend themselves from any adversary that attacked them on their own.

For the Federalists, aviation was seen more as an element of psychological warfare than as a weapon of war per se. It was not uncommon for the Constitutionalists to flee or surrender to the Federalist soldiers when the famous little red ones appeared in the skies over the front. This prospect was facilitated simply due to their greater numbers, with the Federalist air detachments operating from fixed bases, with sections of aircraft assigned to each part of the front. Although many Federal pilots flew more than one sortie per day, the flight hours were close to those of their peers during the First World War.

On the other hand, the Constitutionalist aviation could not be more different. Due to their smaller numbers, the São Paulo aviators operated in an itinerant manner, moving every 2-3 weeks to a different combat zone. This caused a problem, especially in relation to the wear and tear on pilots and aircraft, which could not be felt due to the short duration of the conflict – but which would certainly have been a major disruption if the war had lasted for a few more months. According to data, it is estimated that a Constitutionalist aviator flew an average of 5 combat sorties per day, which required the maximum physical and psychological strength of each flight crew.

Furthermore, the rebel aircraft operated in closer cooperation with the ground forces, attacking ammunition and food convoys, as well as troop concentrations, usually in raids consisting of one or two aircraft. Better defended targets, such as airfields and the naval ships that were blockading the coast of São Paulo, were avoided, since the Constitutionalist aviation could not afford any losses in combat. However, attacks on these valuable objectives could not simply be strategically denied.

Because of this, meticulous planning was carried out when a riskier mission was finally given the go-ahead. The Constitutionalists preferred to build up force against such targets, launching attacks with three or even four aircraft, with one of them always acting as the group's escort. The greatest pressure of these incursions was placed on the only "pure-blood" fighter available in rebel hands, the Nieuport NiD.72, which had its functions relieved with the arrival of the Curtiss O-1E Falcon.

Despite these strategic and tactical developments, aerial combat in the Constitutionalist Revolution often degenerated into a skirmish in the style of the early years of the First World War: aircraft on observation and bombing missions encountered each other at random in the skies. Since they were mostly two-seaters, while the pilots tried to find a position to fire, the observers did their part, firing the aircraft's rear machine guns at each other. After a brief skirmish, which usually caused damage to aircraft on both sides, both sides called it a day and returned to their bases.

Despite this, there were indeed major battles, such as those on August 8, which saw the first aircraft shot down in combat in South America, and those on August 23, which saw two interesting aerial battles on two different parts of the front. In the end, the aircrews did the best they could with the equipment they had at hand – when encountering an enemy in the skies, most pilots on one side or the other preferred to engage in combat rather than flee to their own lines. Honor and courage were the adjectives that best defined the Federalist and Constitutionalist pilots in this conflict.

List of Air Forces involved*

* Counting only the raw numbers, mentioning the units used in combat, retained for second-line roles, or kept in reserve during the war – in parentheses, when necessary, the actual numbers of aircraft used in combat operations are given.

** The aircraft mentioned in the table represent only the main models used by the Constitutionalists in war operations (fighter, bomber, reconnaissance, liaison and training). According to data collected from various sources, the total number of usable aircraft that served the Constitutionalist cause is close to 30.

*** Only 10 of the original order of 36 were assembled before the end of hostilities. The Wacos in this batch belonged to two versions: the first were the original C90s, indigenous versions of the model militarized nationally in Brazil; the second were the C90/M, truly military versions of the model purchased directly from the Waco Aircraft Company, and equipped with more powerful engines.

**** They were not used due to lack of trained crews.

***** Of the 9 (some sources claim 10) ordered, only 4 reached the hands of the Constitutionalists – they were the 'Kavuré-Y', 'Kyri-Kyri, 'Taguató' and 'José Mário'.

Main events of the aerial war in the Constitutionalist Revolution

10.07.1932 (Morning). First air mission of the war: Waco CSO Paulista is sent to Rio de Janeiro, on a mission to drop leaflets over the federal capital.

10.07.1932 (Afternoon). Federalists react, launching their own leaflet-dropping mission over the revolutionary capital, with a Potez 25 TOE and a Vought O2U-2A. Although the Constitutionalists were simultaneously carrying out a patrol over the skies of São Paulo with two Waco CSOs and a Nieuport Ni.80 E2, no combat was recorded between the two groups.

13.07.1932. A Federalist Potez TOE 25 is assigned to a bombing mission in Queluz, on the border between the states of RJ and SP. The aircraft attacks concentrations of rebellious troops and later returns to base. In a second raid that day, another loyalist Potez TOE 25 is assigned to a reconnaissance mission near Bananal. On that occasion, the aircraft is intercepted by a Waco CSO from São Paulo. The first aerial combat recorded in the history of Brazilian aviation takes place, with both aircraft returning to their bases intact.

14.07.1932/03/XNUMX. First air desertion of the war, when a Federalist Waco (CSO-CXNUMX) is hijacked by pilot Arthur Motta da Lima Filho, and later handed over to the Constitutionalist aviation.

15.07.1932/60/60. A Federalist Waco CSO, assigned to an escort mission, intercepts a constitutional DH XNUMX, which was on an observation mission near Taubaté. Trying to avoid combat, the pilot of the DH XNUMX makes a forced landing within his own lines. However, the Waco machine-guns its opponent on the ground, extensively damaging the constitutional Gipsy Moth. This is the first loss of an aircraft due to combat in the war.

16.07.1932. The first major raid of the war: 6 Federalist planes (2 Potez 25 TOE, 2 Waco CSO, one Vought O2U-2A and one Amiot 122 Bp3) are assigned to a t bombing mission over São Paulo, with the Campo de Marte (general HQ of the Constitutionalist aviation) as the main objective. Although all the planes returned safely to base after the raid, the results of the raid were disappointing.

17.07.1932. Another raid is planned and executed by government forces, again against the Campo de Marte: 4 planes, this time 3 Potez 25 TOE and one Amiot 122 Bp3, carry out a bombing run over the airfield, inflicting little damage to the site. Again, all the planes return to base intact.

18.07.1932. Two Vought O2U-2A Corsairs from the Naval Air Force, on patrol near Paraty, intercepted a Waco CSO from São Paulo. A brief skirmish developed between the three aircraft; however, the São Paulo aircraft managed to disengage from the combat, departing at high speed towards friendly lines.

19.07.1932. Four Vought O2U-2A Corsairs are dispatched on a close air mission over Cunha, under government siege. The incursion paves the way for a general federalist attack the next day on the city, which resists and remains in constitutional hands.

20.07.1932/25/XNUMX. Three Waco CSO and three Potez XNUMX TOE Federalists carry out bombing missions against constitutionalist ground forces, near São José do Barreiro.

26.07.1932/25/XNUMX. A Federal Potez XNUMX TOE attacks the base and sub-regional HQ of the Paulista aviation in the Paraíba Valley, in the city of Itapetininga. 

27.07.1932/55/1. First strategic bombing mission in Latin America: two SM.2A and one Martin PM-2b, escorted by two Vought OXNUMXU-XNUMXA Corsairs from the Naval Air Force, set off on an attack mission against the Cubatão power plant, essential to the Constitutionalist war effort. Despite being well planned, the raid ends in failure due to mechanical problems in one of the Savoias and a mismatch between the bombers and the escort.

28.07.1932/25/XNUMX. A new attack carried out by the Federalist Potez XNUMX TOE on the Itapetininga base. Although a Waco CSO from São Paulo was parked at the location at the exact time of the attack, the plane escaped the attack without damage.

29.07.1932/25/XNUMX. The São Paulo Air Force retaliates against the attacks on the Itapetininga base. Two Potez XNUMX TOEs are dispatched to attack the government plane that had bombed and machine-gunned the location in the previous days. The attack is a success, with the Potez Constitutionalists destroying their government counterpart on the ground.

29.07.1932/55/2. While the Paulistas carried out the attack described above, forces from the Naval Air Arm attacked the port of Cubatão, with an SM.2 and a Vought OXNUMXU-XNUMXA. The consequences of this attack were minimal.

08.08.1932 (Morning). A lone government Potez 25 TOE, while on patrol near Bananal, is intercepted by a mixed formation of two Waco CSO and a Potez 25 TOE from São Paulo. After a quick skirmish, the Constitutionalist pilots claim several hits on the plane. However, despite being damaged, the Federal Potez manages to return to its base of origin.  

08.08.1932 (Afternoon). At around 16:25 p.m., a second encounter: near Buri, three São Paulo planes and one government plane meet again in the skies over the front. A fight ensues between the parties, with the government plane (Potez 117 TOE registration A-XNUMX) being forced to make a forced landing due to damage sustained in the collision. As far as we know, this was the first report of an aerial shootdown in South America.

12.08.1932. Now it is the federalists' turn to retaliate: two Vought O2U-2A and a Potez 25 TOE launch a new attack on the Itapetininga air base. Little damage is caused, and no casualties or aerial combat are recorded.

13.08.1932 (Dawn). The first recorded night air raid in the history of South America. A Waco CSO Constitutionalist bombs the Resende airfield, the main federal air base on the Eastern Front. Little damage is recorded as a result of the bombing.

13.08.1932/25/25 (Afternoon). Another encounter between Constitutionalist and Federalist aircraft: after a close air mission near the city of Areias, a Potez XNUMX TOE and two Waco CSOs from São Paulo cross paths with a government-ed Potez XNUMX TOE. Another aerial combat in the skies over the Paraíba Valley front, with only light damage suffered by some of the planes involved in the battle.

14.08.1932 (Morning). The Federalists launch a counterattack at 9:45 in the morning. Five Potez 25 TOE and two Waco CSO (other sources state that the formation consisted of two Potez, two Nieuport NiD.72, two Waco CSO and one Amiot 122 Bp3) attack the Lorena air base, the location from which the São Paulo night attack originated. Two Potez 25 TOE and three Waco CSO were on the ground at the time of the attack. All the São Paulo planes take off to respond to the attack. A brief skirmish ensues over the air base, with no planes being shot down in the combat.

14.08.1932 (Afternoon). With the approach of government forces by land, the Constitutionalist Aviation Group definitively abandons the Lorena airfield, which had served as the main Constitutionalist advanced air base and a link between air operations on the Coastal and Eastern fronts. This displacement cools down the fighting in the area again.

20.08.1932. Second important air desertion of the war, when one of the federalist Nieuport NiD.72s is hijacked by pilot Adherbal da Costa Oliveira, and later handed over to the Constitutionalist air force. It is worth ing that this was one of only two operational NiD.72s in the federal air force, which substantially weakens the legalist air power.

22.08.1932/72/25. An intense aerial combat developed near the city of Queluz, on the border between the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. A Waco CSO and Nieuport NiD.72 from São Paulo faced off against a Potez XNUMX TOE, a Waco CSO and a Nieuport NiD.XNUMX from the Federalists. Despite the ferocity of the combat, neither aircraft suffered serious damage.

23.08.1932/25/72 (Morning). In one of the most successful actions of the loyalist aviation during the conflict, two Potez 25 TOE, two Waco CSO and one Nieuport NiD.116 federalists bombed the Guaratinguetá airfield, which had become the main advanced air base of the rebels after the abandonment of Lorena. A Potez XNUMX TOE (registration A-XNUMX) from São Paulo stationed at the field was completely destroyed due to the incursion.

23.08.1932/25/25 (Afternoon). Two aerial combats took place in the northern sector. A Potez 72 TOE and a Waco CSO from São Paulo faced two Federal Potez XNUMX TOEs. Later that same day, a Nieuport NiD.XNUMX and a Waco CSO from São Paulo faced an identical composition of Federal aircraft. In both encounters, no kills were reported.

25.08.1932/90/90. The first Waco C0.30 and CXNUMXM were delivered to the loyalist forces stationed at the front, forming part of the Resende Detachment. Equipped with two XNUMX Browning machine guns that fired through the propeller arch, it was expected that these planes would regain control of the skies for Federal aviation.

03.09.1932/1/XNUMX (Morning). First war operation of the Constitutionalist Curtiss Falcons, when a lone O-XNUMXE, piloted by the American Orton Hoover and having as observer Juvenal Paixão, attacks the federalist river flotilla on the Paraguay River. Little damage is inflicted in the raid.

03.09.1932/55/02 (Afternoon). In cooperation with the Navy, a raid is carried out on the Itaipu Fortress, the main defense of the port of Santos and which had become the Constitutionalists' main route of communication with the outside world. Three SM.2A and a Vought XNUMXV-XNUMXA from the Naval Air Arm bomb the site, causing light damage to the fortification.

05.09.1932 (Morning). New raid by air-naval forces against the Itaipu Fortress, with the aim of definitively destroying the bastion's defenses. Three SM.55A and two Martin PM-1b were assigned to the operation, which dropped more than a ton of bombs on the fort. The second attack proved to be perfect from a strategic and tactical point of view, with the fortress being reduced without the loss of any aircraft involved in the raid.

05.09.1932 (Afternoon). The Falcons also return for a second offensive to Ladário (Mato Grosso do Sul), headquarters of the Paraguay River Flotilla. This time, the attack is more successful, with the O-1E slightly damaging the Monitor Pernambuco.

11.09.1932. A Federalist Waco (registration CSO-C08) is shot down by anti-aircraft fire while carrying out an attack on a train near the city of Casa Branca. The pilot and co-pilot are killed in the combat.

13.09.1932. Three Waco CSOs and a Nieuport NiD.72 from São Paulo are deployed for a close operation near the city of Queluz. Although the operation is a success, the Nieuport is damaged by anti-aircraft fire and has to spend a week in repairs.

18.09.1932. A Potez 25 TOE Constitutionalist is intercepted by two Waco C90 and a Potez 25 TOE Federalist near Cruzeiro. After an aerial combat lasting a few minutes, both sides withdraw from the battlefield without casualties.

21.09.1932/90/XNUMX. A Curtiss Falcon and a Waco CSO from São Paulo are intercepted near Pedreira (SP) by a federal Waco CXNUMX. The combat takes place over no man's land, with both sides managing to score hits on their opponents. However, no planes are shot down.

20.09.1932/72/90. One of the largest São Paulo raids of the war, when two Curtiss Falcons, a Waco CSO and a Nieuport NiD.XNUMX launched an attack on the Mogi-Mirim air base. The loyalist aviators were taken by surprise by the attack, with the four Wacos (CSO and CXNUMX models) stationed at the site being easy targets for the attacking formation. After the Constitutionalist planes withdrew, the damage could actually be counted: two of the Federalist planes were completely destroyed, while the other two suffered light damage.

24.09.1932/XNUMX/XNUMX. In a bold and desperate attack, two Curtiss Falcons and a Waco CSO Constitutionalists bomb the federal squadron that was carrying out the blockade off the port of Santos, with the cruiser Rio Grande do Sul as the main target. The raid was a failure, with one of the Constitutionalist Falcons being shot down by the ship's anti-aircraft guns.

01.10.1932/1/504 – In one of the last air operations of the war, three Falcon O-0E Constitutionalists carried out a diversionary attack on the city of Ladário, attacking the river force assigned to defend the Paraguay River. The federal tugboat Voluntário, anchored at the site, was slightly damaged in the combat. The naval squadron assigned to protect the base (two Avro XNUMX N/XNUMX equipped with floats) did not take off to face the threat.

The lessons of the air war in Brazil

Although short in duration, the lessons learned from aerial combat in the skies over Brazil proved to be lasting elements in the national tactical doctrine of aviation in the post-war period. This can be seen in the rapid expansion of the aeronautical arm within the Brazilian armed forces, with the acquisition of several models that strengthened the country's arsenal in the mid-to-late 1930s.

It is no wonder that, if in 1930 Brazil had one of the least expressive air forces in South America, in 1937 the country had an excellent air force (between navy and army), obviously compared to its South American neighbors. The incorporation of some aircraft, such as the Boeing F4B, Focke-Wulf FW 58B and a new batch of Vought O2U Corsair in the second half of the decade, certainly elevated the country to the great aeronautical power of Latin America at that time.

However, other lessons were learned, especially from the defeated Constitutionalists: despite having only a handful of planes considered first-rate, the tactics of mobility and concentration in delimited points basically nullified the Federal air superiority for much of the confrontation, until the weight of numbers began to change the balance of the scales definitively in favor of the legalist forces.

One can only guess at what might have happened to the air war if the ground operations themselves had lasted a few more weeks, or even months: with a full complement of Falcons, would the Constitutionalists have gained control of the skies? What would the Constitutionalist response be once all the Waco C90s ordered by the feds were in operation? And what would have been the operational impact of the use of the colossal LeO 253 Bn.4 Federalists, which were kept in reserve throughout the conflict? We will never know for sure, since only proven in the great exercise of assumptions…

What can be taken for granted are the gross numbers of aircraft losses by each side during the operations of the 1932 war; for the Constitutionalists, these would be: two Potez 25 TOE, one Curtiss O-1E and one DH 60 Gipsy Moth. For the Federalists, the operational losses were as follows: four Waco (models CSO and C90), two Potez 25 TOE, two DH 60T Moth, one Martin PM-1b and one Vought O2U-2A.

References:

Article Constitutionalist Aviation in the 1932 Revolution, by Engineering Colonel Cláudio Moreira Bento

Article The use of Aviation in the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932, by Colonel-Aviator Manuel Cambeses Junior

Book Hawks of Penacho, by Major-Brigadier Lysias Augusto Cerqueira Rodrigues

Book The Paulista War: The Last Civil War in Brazil, by Javier Garcia de Gabiola

Book A Gray Sky, by Carlos Roberto Carvalho Daróz

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